We also see the deeper roots of his resentment later, when, at line , he summarizes the story for his mother, Thetis , and begins with the sacking of the city that led to the capture of the women and the initial distribution of prizes.
Even though you are the stronger man, and the mother who bore you was immortal, yet is this man greater who is lord over more than you rule. This is a more fundamental conflict over honor and status, and one that will be hard to resolve in a world that lacks some of the kinds of institutions or beliefs we may take for granted: a code of law and recognized authorities to enforce it, accepted systems of arbitration, divinities who represent a higher moral standard.
Nestor can offer good advice Achilleus must feel this separation all the more acutely as the son of a goddess. This contrast between the immortal gods and goddesses, and mortal men and women raises the question of the role that the gods and goddesses play in the poem. In many respects, the gods behave rather like humans: Apollo helps his priest, because his priest did things for him.
Apollo is angry when he is dishonored by the treatment of his priest. Thetis asks Zeus for a favor because she had once helped him. Throughout the battles, the gods and goddesses will support the warriors on the side they favor. Homer also contrasts the gods and goddesses with human beings.
In this scene, their lame son, Hephaistos , the craftsman of the gods, calms Hera down and reminds her of the dangers of trying to fight with Zeus.
The wrath of Apollo three millennia ago could easily take the form of the wrath of nature in the twenty-first century. We no longer have gods. We have replaced those anthropomorphic and civilized, and democratic gods with mean one-god tyrants.
Not only do we have frightful and genocidal weapons on the ready for the potential extermination of our real or imaginary enemies, but we direct our misguided and unethical power against the natural world, indirectly digging our own graves.
So, would it be wrong to think of our virus pestilence as divine wrath coming not from Apollo but from his sister, goddess Artemis, now represented by the endangered natural world? Even closer to home, we know the sources for plagues are as far as our animal farms, disease factories for decades. And yet, the profit of slaughtering animals by the billions is so large. The brainwashing for eating meat so pervasive that the obsession of fighting the pandemic is only with synthetic drugs we call vaccines.
Start with getting rid of pesticides in our food. These poisons defeat our natural defenses: they weaken and often shatter our immune system, making it easier for the plague to make us sick or kill us.
Pesticides are not necessary for growing food. Organic farmers are the proof. They grow healthy food. With a federal policy change from pesticide-dependent agriculture to family farming guided by agroecological science, organic farmers would have no trouble feeding the nation. The second change to defeat recurring or continuing pandemics would be to address the life and death threats of climate change seriously. This monster is fed by the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, billions of cars fueled by petroleum, and industrialized agriculture, especially its animal sacrifice zones.
These enclosures, also known as animal farms, resemble sardine cans packed with too many sardines. The man, not the argument, was rejected.
So, while Agamemnon leads by the command of Zeus, as Seibel notes, any ability to plan or act according to a balanced assessment of the emotions of the masses is absent. Multiple utterances, even those of underlings, give voice to his dismal personality. Now, however, under the encouragement of the basileis and Athena, the Achaians have gathered about Agamemnon.
He will lead them into battle. At this point, the poet wishes to stress the sheer grandeur of Agamemnon and his role as the foremost leader of the Achaians. The description may be a bit strained at points, as noted in one scholion, but the poet has included a number of traditional themes.
Nowhere else in Homer are so many divine comparisons brought together in one place. The oral themes extend beyond artistic images known from real life.
However significant the advances in theme found on the vases of the Dipylon Master of the Late Geometric Period, the sort of differentiation suggested here has not yet developed in the plastic arts. As a whole, the description appears to reference the foremost character of Agamemnon as a mighty warrior and hegemon in battle Cf.
Latacz b The ensuing rural simile drives the point home still further, as Agamemnon is compared to a bull, preeminent in the herd. These descriptions draw attention to what was already made clear in the preceding comparison of Agamemnon to various gods: his preeminence as the paramount basileus leading his troops into battle. A consideration of this more regularly occurring description suggests its meaning for Homer and his audience. The word may suggest a leading military rank, which is related to fighting prowess, strength, or even stature.
Ajax is described in identical terms when he forces other Achaeans to fight with him to guard the corpse of Patroklos, although they want to give ground in the bloody battle Iliad The term may be used to specify superiority in honor or some other virtue. It also describes animals Odyssey It is clear that, while Agamemnon lacks felicitous qualities of interpersonal skills and the ability to provide capable and thoughtful leadership in the council and assembly, he is nevertheless capable of prowess on the battlefield.
Of course, the sorts of virtues that are needed to head a charge into battle are not the same as those required to plan or lead otherwise.
Agamemnon does his part in preparing for the sacrifice, an event meant to solemnize the oath between the Achaians and Trojans —, — He moves center stage for the action, as we might expect from his rank. In our present scene, Agamemnon shows that he is indeed in charge and acting his part, by sending Talthybios to fetch the sacrificial lambs — Hitch suggests that this is a positive role, although it is a role he usually leaves to others, even when the sacrifice is made at his own shelter cf.
Iliad 7. Achilles also led in making sacrifice Iliad The butchering, carving, and spitting of the animal were all left to his men. During the ceremony, Agamemnon offers a prayer as part of the oath.
Of course, Agamemnon may be thinking about the wrong done to Menelaos as a host in that sacred relationship. Yet, even here, the large sum suggested seems inordinate, or at least fanciful.
We found in the initial portrait the poet paints of Agamemnon that he can be thoughtlessly excessive in his demands, [ ] and this seems to be the case here as well. Certainly Agamemnon will also add inordinate and infelicitous extras in his speech in Iliad 9, as we will see when we consider that narrative moment.
Achilles says to Patroklos What good would it do to perform such a heroic deed if there were no witnesses to honor the memory of its accomplishment? Even so, while Agamemnon does not go as far as Achilles, his sentiments have the same flavor. It is a remarkable indifference. The event causes Agamemnon and Menelaos, consternation and confusion to say the least.
Agamemnon will stand forth to declare Menelaos the clear winner and ask once again for a recompense that will be known to future generations, only to be answered by the divinely appointed 4. We need here only to highlight points that bear directly on his characterization. Conversely, the remarks by Agamemnon were meant to be anything but flattering.
They formed a disparaging censure. No clear apology was forthcoming for Diomedes, however. They were high-handed and rash. It is to the first of these two scenes that we now turn. Book 9 acts as a complete scene, with the whole book encapsulated in a large ring structure.
Sammons — These wrongs, formerly submerged, now come to the fore at a moment of imminent crisis for the Achaians. Within the narrative of book 9, we twice become auditors of the resounding yet significant silence of the Achaians, as well as the complaints of Diomedes, the reprimand of Nestor, and the excessively angry response of Achilles.
The situation is dire. The Trojans are now on the other side of the defensive ditches keeping watch till dawn 8.
They have eaten their evening meal and the horses have been well cared for 8. The watch fires have been set in great number 8. The poet displays the intensity of the moment by having not only the Trojan men but even their horses eagerly await the arrival of Dawn Iliad 8.
It is at this moment that Agamemnon calls an assembly. In stark contrast to his earlier testing of the troops considered already 2. It is no ruse. It is a line that includes the same verb used earlier to characterize the sorrowful Achaians.
The description of Agamemnon in such a high state of fearful grief finds resonance with a synonymous expression in book 10 of the Odyssey. The expression registers the intense grief of Eurylochos who in tears could not speak after witnessing his companions being suddenly changed into swine by Kirke.
He is crying in sorrow described by words connected with lamentation. Yet, unlike Agamemnon with his troops, Odysseus will provide a resolute and proactive leadership response for his distraught second-in-command, Eurylochos Odyssey It introduces the lamentation of Achilles over the loss of Patroklos His emotion is not feigned; he is in deep distress.
Agamemnon says virtually the same thing for the first nine lines here in book 9 that he did in book 2 9. He excludes, however, the emphasis on shame seen in 2.
The silence formula with which the troops respond to Agamemnon indicates their present state of discomfort. First, however, it is necessary to note that the lower ranks cannot normally express their grievances openly.
At this early moment in the assembly Iliad 9. Any attentive audience member would not have soon forgotten the sort of contrasting bedlam that engulfed book 2. The larger story doubtless makes the current narrative moment more poignant, [ ] in part through the recurrence of traditional language. In his speech, Diomedes begins by revisiting the earlier rebuke from Agamemnon that remains a sore point.
But to you, two divergent gifts were bestowed by the son of Kronos of the crooked counsels; The scepter to you he gave to be honored above all, but the capacity to help, to you he did not give, which is the greatest possession. The silence of the troops, which awaited the representative reply from higher up, turns to shouting. Meanwhile, the troops have not begun to move. Nestor uses the same diplomatic tone as Diomedes does with Agamemnon cf.
Hainsworth Nestor is more diplomatic, but he is also, like Diomedes, reacting against a past grievance. In his remarks to Agamemnon, Nestor himself revisits earlier events those of Iliad 1. Nestor suggests that they try to persuade Achilles to return 9. In suggesting this course of action, Nestor reprimands Agamemnon for not following his earlier authoritative muthos. For having seized his war prize, you presently possess it. Nestor, I suggest, makes the third claimant after Diomedes and the Achaians of a grievance against Agamemnon.
Agamemnon has shown himself more verbally abusive and reactive than thoughtful and responsive in many of the scenes we have considered so far. Achilles, however, is possessed by his grievance against Agamemnon — This grievance, already alluded to by Nestor as we have seen, is emphatically brought forth by Achilles as the cause of his resolute intransigence in response to the embassy. Agamemnon emerges from book 9 as a less than sympathetic character.
His leadership skills cannot meet the crisis and he is overwhelmed. No one will go with him, but instead Agamemnon is reproached for his past leadership debacles. Themes from this scene resonate with past and chronologically future difficulties. Various ranks criticize their imperious leader for his lack of wisdom and suggest rapprochement with Achilles. Ingrained habits are difficult to change. It is imprudent, then, to excise it. We meet Agamemnon first in book 10 when, as the poet tells us, he cannot sleep while most others can 1—3.
The poet is perhaps creating suspense, preparing his audience for the approaching night foray. Rather, it was part of extemporaneous musicmaking for Trojan victories during the day just passed. After all, the Achaians are quiet by contrast 14 , and the only ones stirring are Agamemnon and his worried basileis.
Agamemnon is struck as he lies there by the contrast in what he sees. His reaction is sorrowful lamentation. Agamemnon even pulls out his hair in helpless distress, an intensely emotional response. It is paralleled, among other places in Homer, by Priam in his desperation to keep Hector from facing Achilles but also death Iliad The cutting of the hair for the dead, after all, was something practiced for animals e.
Iliad 3. Agamemnon fears utter destruction. Agamemnon seems at a loss, yet he is not alone for long. When Menelaos arrives, Agamemnon orders him to run quickly along the ships and call on Ajax and Idomeneus He will go to Nestor.
Agamemnon even advises his inquisitive sibling to give due honor when calling upon each man, and to avoid haughtiness.
Agamemnon heads off to Nestor, in whose presence he describes himself as sleepless and weighed down by war and the cares of the Achaians. Agamemnon urges Nestor, who is equally sleepless He urges that other Achaian leaders be called on as well. Yet, Agamemnon is not heard from for the rest of the book, even after the return of Odysseus and Diomedes who have perpetrated a stunning night raid on the Trojan lines and have returned to celebrate.
It seems as though his leadership is not really needed for the night raid. It is little wonder, considering the picture of fearful and distraught incapacity we have received of him at a critical moment in the war. The entire ensuing scene is itself highly traditional. The effect is to focus our attention on Agamemnon fully armed 44—46 : … but far off his bronze armor from the very spot into heaven flashed; But in response thundered Athena and Hera to honor the king of rich-in-gold Mycenae.
Our attention is drawn in this poetic description to the warrior fully armed and ready for battle. Zeus is keeping the promise he made to Thetis to bring honor to her son Iliad 1. The formulaic simile highlights his heroic posture and actions cf. This same sort of referential emphasis is given to other heroes or heroic groups, such as Achilles and the Trojans.
Agamemnon, who is said to cause the Trojans to flee in terror , takes his place in the fighting. Further, Agamemnon has been characterized as especially brutal in what he says when advising his brother Menelaos, in Iliad 6. There Agamemnon offers caring words to his brother, who is ready to make up for the lack of spirit in the other Achaians by personally facing Hector in battle.
Of particular note is its use in Odyssey 2. It would be strange if Agamemnon as hegemon of the Greek forces at Troy was not at times brutal, since war is by nature gruesome. What else does a warrior enter battle to do?
This reading does not deny that Agamemnon can be brutal in his leadership role, a character trait we discussed earlier in this chapter but not because of hands sullied by war. And what can be taken from that scene to help us understand the sort of person he was for Homer? Achilles urges Priam to sleep in a secluded spot lest his visit be discovered. He enlarges upon the reason Priam could be delayed in setting out. Yet, the only brutality threatened in the whole scene is a moment when Achilles himself seems on the verge of losing self-control and letting his own grief for Patroklos cause him to harm his suppliant-guest — The rare word has caused problems of interpretation for some, but the form is strongly connected with the heroic taunt, including adversarial tones in and off the battlefield.
Here, he may, further, steal away Priam who came with apoina , to increase his own apoina 24 , jeering as he does so. He takes what he wants from his basileis. To summarize, the brutality of book 11 is not really odd within the context of the Trojan War, [ ] but book 24 does assume an Agamemnon who is selfishly despotic. Yet he fights on, hurling the traditional large stones that so amazed the poet as he described events of the epic past.
He shouts an order to his commanders to carry on the fight and returns in his chariot to the ships. Zeus makes this narrative direction plain in his speech to Iris, aimed at spurring on Trojan Hector — : Yet when he [Agamemnon] either having been struck with a spear or hit with an arrow towards [his] horses springs, then for him [Hector], strength I will grant to kill until that point when he should arrive on the well-benched ships and the sun set and divine dusk descend.
It seems ironic that the longest of the four full-scale arming scenes in the Iliad should be accompanied by so little else, other than a basileus fervently rushing into battle ahead of his forces. What are the implications of all this? The syncopation may just be meant to accentuate the urgent nature of the situation, which it certainly does. Many short references in the Iliad , besides the episodes we have looked at in detail already, support this conclusion.
In the catalogue of ships, Agamemnon is described as leading the largest contingent to Troy. A small ring composition 2. Rather, its traditional use for Achilles, Agamemnon, Ajax, and Diomedes 5. This section of the Iliad includes a third call for a nostos by a dejected Agamemnon. Many of the same themes in his call for a nostos in book 9 recur here. When book 14 opens, many of the Achaian basileis are injured and out of action, while the Trojans press the battle to the very ships The poet now brings Nestor back into view.
All the while he hears the clamor that reaches the aether He decides upon the latter course of action and discovers Agamemnon among the wounded leaders gathered in a safer location by the ships. He and other Achaians have had many opportunities to hear Hector, including his exhortations for his troops to engage the Achaians in battle or his direct threats to the Achaians themselves.
Odysseus, however, is not yet finished. He continues his confrontational assault by sarcastically asking Agamemnon if he really intends to leave 88— This is the sort of order, Odysseus berates, that neither man nor king should utter. Athena brings Agamemnon and Menelaos into contention about the departure voyage. Proclus Chrestomathy — In Iliad 14, by contrast, it is Agamemnon who wants to leave, despite his plea and assurance that he did not in fact issue an authoritative command Agamemnon is backtracking.
He wishes to revise the past with a new interpretation. If the reactions of others are relevant in our evaluation of Agamemnon, they imply that Agamemnon has acted impetuously and miscalculated the response of his fellow warriors. Achilles hopes that this result will cause disgrace for Agamemnon and so repay the wrong that the King did to Achilles.
Thetis visits Zeus on Olympos, and the king of the gods agrees to aid the Trojans, although he expresses a fear that his wife, Hera, will be annoyed because she is jealous of Thetis and hates the Trojans and hence cannot bear to see them win the war. Readers discover that Hera does indeed hate the Trojans, but she fears Zeus' wrath even more, and so she quiets her protests. The first book ends with a banquet of the gods in Zeus' palace. In Book I, the initial quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles, mediated by Nestor, is paralleled at the end of the book by the quarrel between Zeus and Hera, mediated by Hephaistos.
The quarrel among the gods breaks down into a humorous scene that ironically accentuates the seriousness of the human quarrel. Homer's technique of repeating an earlier scene with a later one is used throughout the Iliad. In fact, this structural technique is a basis for the entire work. However, Book I essentially sets up the tension for the rest of the poem.
He further introduces in the word "rage" one of the human qualities, along with pride and honor, that will make up a major theme of the work as a whole.
Initially, Achilles' anger seems a reasonable response to the arrogance of Agamemnon, but as the poem progresses, it becomes clear that righteous anger can degenerate into petty resentment or escalate into uncontrollable rage. The necessity for reason and self-control over emotions becomes an overriding idea in the Iliad. Similarly, the related concepts of pride and honor are introduced in Book I. Both Agamemnon and Achilles believe that their honor is compromised in the decisions involving the female captives, Chryseis and Briseis.
Pride and honor were important principles to the Greeks, particularly because those traits involved public perception. Agamemnon thinks that Achilles, by calling the council and demanding that Chryseis be returned to Chryses, has challenged his leadership and impugned his honor. Likewise, Achilles feels that Agamemnon's decision to take Briseis as a replacement for Chryseis is an affront to his honor and a public show of disrespect by the Achaian leader.
Individual senses of pride and honor here blind the two warriors to the greater good. Their hubris — overweening pride — requires them to react in foolish ways, Agamemnon in taking Achilles' captive Briseis and Achilles in withdrawing himself and his troops from battle.
Homer once again shows that a noble human trait can be subverted by emotion into pettiness and irrationality.
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